7.1 Shifting Power After 1900
The West dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century, but both land-based and maritime empires gave way to new states by the century's end. The older, land-based Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires collapsed due to a combination of internal and external factors.
Qing Empire Collapse (1911)
Overthrown by a revolution led by Sun Yat-sen after years of internal rebellions (like the Taiping and Boxer Rebellions) and brutal economic imperialism by Western powers. This ended 2,000 years of imperial rule in China, establishing a republic.
Russian Revolution (1917)
Economic hardship, catastrophic losses in WWI, and an oppressive autocracy led to the overthrow of the Romanov Tsars. Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power, eventually establishing the communist Soviet Union.
Ottoman Collapse
Known as the "Sick Man of Europe," the empire fractured due to rising nationalism among its diverse subjects and disastrous defeats in WWI. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk emerged to found the modern, secular Republic of Turkey.
The Mexican Revolution (1910)
Arising from deep anger over political corruption, vast wealth inequality, and the concentration of land ownership (haciendas) heavily controlled by foreign investors, revolutionaries like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata fought for massive land reform and a new constitution.
7.2 Causes of World War I M.A.I.N.
The causes of World War I included imperialist expansion and competition for resources. In addition, territorial and regional conflicts combined with a flawed alliance system and intense nationalism to escalate the tensions into global conflict.
- Militarism: The industrial mass-production of deadlier weapons and the glorification of military power.
- Alliances: Secret defense treaties (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance) meant a conflict between two nations would drag all of Europe into war.
- Imperialism: Fierce competition for overseas colonies and resources in Africa and Asia.
- Nationalism: Extreme pride in one's nation, particularly the desire for self-determination among Slavic groups in the Balkans.
The Spark: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo (June 1914) ignited the alliance system, launching the "Great War."
7.3 Conducting World War I
World War I was the first Total War. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies) for the purpose of waging war.
| Aspect of the War | Impact / Description |
|---|---|
| New Military Technology | Industrialization brought machine guns, poison gas, submarines (U-boats), airplanes, and tanks. This led to horrific casualties and a deadly stalemate. |
| Trench Warfare | Soldiers dug hundreds of miles of trenches (especially on the Western Front), leading to a war of attrition characterized by disease, "no man's land," and massive loss of life for inches of ground. |
| Colonial Involvement | European powers drafted millions of soldiers and laborers from their colonies (e.g., India, Senegal, Australia). Many fought hoping their service would earn their nations independence. |
7.4 Economy in the Interwar Period
Following World War I and the onset of the Great Depression, governments began to take a much more active role in economic life.
The Great Depression
Triggered by the 1929 US Stock Market Crash, agricultural overproduction, and post-war debt. It severely damaged global economies, leading to mass unemployment and creating fertile ground for political extremism.
Keynesian Economics & The New Deal
Economist John Maynard Keynes argued that during depressions, governments should use deficit spending to stimulate the economy. US President FDR implemented the New Deal, creating massive public works programs and social security to provide relief and reform.
Soviet Five-Year Plans
Joseph Stalin completely centralized the Soviet economy. His Five-Year Plans aimed to rapidly industrialize Russia through government quotas and the brutal collectivization of agriculture, leading to massive industrial growth but also catastrophic famines (Holodomor).
Fascist Corporatist Economy
In Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, the government strictly controlled the economy, outlawing labor unions and directing private businesses to serve the national interest and prepare for war.
7.5 Unresolved Tensions After World War I
The peace settlement at the end of WWI failed to resolve underlying tensions and actually created new ones, setting the stage for WWII.
- Treaty of Versailles: Blamed Germany entirely for the war (War Guilt Clause), forced them to pay crippling reparations, and severely restricted their military. This crushed the German economy and created deep resentment that Hitler exploited.
- The Mandate System: Despite promises of independence, the League of Nations allowed Britain and France to carve up the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East into "mandates" (essentially new colonies), sparking lasting anti-Western anger in the Arab world.
- Japanese Expansion: Feeling disrespected by Western powers after WWI and needing raw materials for its industries, an increasingly militaristic Japan began expanding its empire, invading Manchuria and establishing the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."
7.6 Causes of World War II
The causes of World War II included the unsustainable peace settlement after WWI, the global economic crisis engendered by the Great Depression, continued imperialist aspirations, and especially the rise to power of fascist and totalitarian regimes that resulted in the aggressive militarism of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.
The Failure of Appeasement
As Hitler aggressively violated the Treaty of Versailles (remilitarizing, annexing Austria, demanding the Sudetenland), Britain and France pursued a policy of Appeasement—giving in to his demands in hopes of avoiding another war. The League of Nations proved entirely powerless to stop the aggression of Germany, Italy, or Japan. The war officially began when Germany invaded Poland in 1939.
7.7 Conducting World War II
World War II was a total war. Governments used ideologies, including fascism and communism, to mobilize all of their state's resources for war and, in the case of totalitarian states, to repress basic freedoms and dominate many aspects of daily life during the conflict.
| Strategy / Technology | Impact on the War |
|---|---|
| Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) | Germany's tactic of using rapidly moving tanks (Panzers) supported by overwhelming air power to quickly overwhelm defenses, allowing them to conquer much of Europe swiftly. |
| Civilian Targeting & Firebombing | Unlike WWI, WWII deeply targeted civilian populations to destroy enemy morale and industrial capacity. Examples include the Blitz in London, and the devastating firebombing of Dresden and Tokyo. |
| The Atomic Bomb | Developed by the US (Manhattan Project). The dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced Japan's surrender, ending WWII but instantly ushering in the terrifying Nuclear Age. |
7.8 Mass Atrocities After 1900 Human Rights
The rise of extremist groups in power led to the attempted destruction of specific populations, as well as other atrocities, acts of genocide, or ethnic violence.
- Armenian Genocide (1915): During WWI, the Ottoman government systematically exterminated roughly 1.5 million Christian Armenians, fearing they would ally with Russia.
- The Holocaust: The most horrific genocide in history. Nazi Germany systematically murdered 6 million Jews, as well as millions of others (Romani people, disabled individuals, political dissidents), as part of Hitler's "Final Solution" based on extreme racial ideology.
- Cambodian Genocide (1970s): The communist Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, attempted to turn Cambodia into an agrarian utopia, resulting in the slaughter of up to 2 million people (targeting intellectuals and minorities).
- Rwandan Genocide (1994): Over the course of 100 days, extremist Hutus murdered an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus, largely using machetes, while the international community failed to intervene.
★ 7.9 Causation in Global Conflict
To master Unit 7, you must synthesize the unprecedented scale of conflict and the dramatic shifts in global power during the first half of the 20th century.