Cold War and Decolonization (c. 1900 to present)

Hopes for greater self-government were largely unfulfilled following World War I; however, in the years following World War II, increasing anti-imperialist sentiment contributed to the dissolution of empires and the restructuring of states.

At the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences near the end of WWII, the Allied leaders attempted to plan the post-war world. However, deep mistrust between the democratic/capitalist West and the authoritarian/communist East led to the division of Europe (symbolized by the "Iron Curtain") and Germany itself.

The Cold War was a decades-long state of geopolitical tension and ideological rivalry between the US and the USSR. It was "cold" because the two superpowers never fought each other directly in open warfare (to avoid mutual nuclear destruction).

The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and promoted proxy wars between and within postcolonial states in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Proxy Wars

Instead of direct confrontation, the US and USSR funded and armed opposing sides in regional conflicts around the globe to expand their influence:

The Non-Aligned Movement

Many newly independent nations, led by leaders like Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) and Sukarno (Indonesia), sought an alternative to the bipolar world. They formed the Non-Aligned Movement to maintain neutrality and promote economic cooperation among developing nations.

As a result of internal tension and Japanese aggression, Chinese communists seized power. These changes in China eventually led to communist revolution.

The Chinese Communist Revolution (1949)

Following a long civil war against the Nationalists, Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China. Unlike Russia, which relied on urban factory workers, Mao successfully mobilized millions of rural peasants to drive his revolution.

• The Great Leap Forward: Mao's disastrous attempt to rapidly industrialize China and collectivize agriculture, resulting in a famine that killed tens of millions.
• The Cultural Revolution: A violent socio-political movement launched by Mao to purge capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, heavily utilizing the radical "Red Guards."

Land Reform Movements globally

Movements to redistribute land and resources developed within states in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, sometimes advocating communism or socialism. For example, land reforms were enacted in Vietnam (communist), Ethiopia (Mengistu Haile Mariam's socialist regime), and the "White Revolution" in Iran (a non-communist top-down reform to prevent a peasant uprising).

Nationalist leaders and parties in Asia and Africa sought varying degrees of autonomy within or independence from imperial rule. After WWII, some colonies negotiated their independence, while others achieved independence through armed struggle.

The redrawing of political boundaries after the withdrawal of former colonial authorities led to the creation of new states, often resulting in massive population displacements, ethnic violence, and regional conflicts.

Although conflict dominated much of the 20th century, many individuals and groups—including states—opposed this trend. Some individuals and groups, however, intensified the conflicts.

Non-Violent Resistance

Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century, and some promoted the practice of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change.

• Mohandas Gandhi (India): Pioneered Satyagraha (truth-force), using boycotts (like the Salt March) and peaceful non-cooperation to collapse British rule.
• Martin Luther King Jr. (USA): Used non-violent civil disobedience to protest racial segregation and secure civil rights for African Americans.
• Nelson Mandela (South Africa): Originally supported armed resistance against the racist Apartheid regime, was imprisoned for 27 years, and emerged to lead a peaceful transition to a multiracial democracy.

Violent Resistance & Terrorism

Some movements used violence against civilians to achieve political aims. Examples include the Shining Path in Peru (a brutal communist guerrilla group) and Al-Qaeda (using terror networks to attack Western targets, most notably on September 11, 2001).

The Cold War ended due to a combination of factors: advances in U.S. military and technological development, the Soviet Union's costly and ultimately failed invasion of Afghanistan, and public discontent and economic weakness in communist countries.

• U.S. Military Spending: President Ronald Reagan aggressively increased military spending (e.g., the "Star Wars" missile defense program), forcing the USSR to spend itself into bankruptcy trying to keep up.
• Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979-1989): Often called the USSR's "Vietnam," this prolonged, expensive, and failed conflict drained Soviet resources and morale.
• Gorbachev's Reforms: Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to save the USSR through Perestroika (economic restructuring towards free markets) and Glasnost (political openness/free speech). Instead of saving the state, Glasnost allowed suppressed nationalism in Eastern Europe to explode, leading to the rapid collapse of the Berlin Wall (1989) and the Soviet Union itself (1991).

To master Unit 8, you must synthesize how the shifting global balance of power led to both ideological warfare and the birth of new nations.